Survey of work of, among others, Christian Thomasius and Christian Wolff; by Brigitte Sassen.

Survey of attempts to draw the distinction between concrete and abstract objects; by Gideon Rosen.

Theories about intentional action and agency; by George Wilson.

The thesis that there are no merely possible entities; by Christopher Menzel.

Life and work of 20th century German philosopher and critical theorist; by Lambert Zuidervaart.

Philosophical theories about judgments of taste; by Nick Zangwill.

Life and work of philosopher and mathematician Alan Mathison Turing; by Andrew Hodges.

Life and work of 14th century German logician and philosopher; by Joël Biard.

Life and work of early Greek medical writer and philosopher-scientist; by Carl Huffman.

By A. D. Irvine.

The historical development and conceptual structure of philosophical analysis; by Michael Beaney.

Two movements in ancient philosophy, Pyrrhonism, and Academic Skepticism. By Leo Groarke.

By Colin Allen of Texas A & M, addressing the qualitative or phenomenological nature of experience.

Life and work of fourth century BC Greek mathematician, political leader and philosopher; by Carl Huffman.

Discussion of Aristotle's ethical views; by Richard Kraut.

Survey of Aristotle's logical work, focus on the "Organon," syllogistic, and dialectic. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Robin Smith.

Aristotle's notions of category and substance; by S. Marc Cohen.

By Fred D. Miller, Jr of Bowling Green State University.

Recounts the principal and distinctive claims of Aristotle's psychological writings, especially "De Anima." By Christopher Shields of the University of Colorado.

Discussion of one of Aristotle's major works; by Christof Rapp.

Detailed biographical article by B. Jack Copeland of the University of Canterbury.

Life and work of 19th century German philosopher; by Robert Wicks.

By Risto Hilpinen of the University of Miami.

Survey of automated deduction and theorem proving; by Frederic Portoraro.

Life and work of 17th century Dutch Rationalist philosopher; by Steven Nadler.

Discussion of a formula to calculate conditional probabilities which figures in subjectivist approaches to epistemology; by James Joyce.

Epistemological movement based on Bayesian confirmation and decision theory; by William Talbott.

By George Graham of University of Alabama at Birmingham.

Discusses implications of general relativity for the philosophy of time; by Steven Savitt.

Life and work of 19th century mathematician and philosopher of mathematics; by Ivor Grattan-Guinness and Alison Walsh.

Discussion of philosophical issues related to biological diversity; by Daniel P. Faith.

Discussion of how altruistic behavior by organisms fits with the theory of evolution; by Samir Okasha.

William Sweet of St. Francis Xavier University introduces the absolute idealist.

By Stewart Candlish of the University of Western Australia.

Discussion of Franz Brentano's foundation for logic and epistemology; by Johannes Brandl.

Life and work of 19th century German philosopher; by Douglas Moggach.

Jean-Pierre Marquis of the University of Montreal introduces the general mathematical theory of structures and systems of structures.

Bertrand Russell, Wesley Salmon, and conserved quantities. By Phil Dowe of the University of Tasmania.

Life and work of 20th Century metaphysician and philosopher of religion; by Dan Dombrowski.

Life and work of 19th centuruy American logician and philosopher; by Robert Burch.

Jack Copeland of the University of Canterbury, New Zealand outlines this frequently misunderstood thesis.

Introduction to classical logic, including completeness and Löwenheim-Skolem theorems; by Stewart Shapiro.

The study of mind and intelligence. By Paul Thagard of the University of Waterloo.

The truth of any (true) proposition consists in its coherence with some specified set of propositions. By James O. Young.

Survey of the dynamical reduction program; by Giancarlo Ghirardi.

Metaphysical and epistemological accounts of color. By Barry Maund of the University of Western Australia.

The life and work of the Chinese philosopher and educatory; by Jeffrey Riegel.

Movement in cognitive science which hopes to explain human intellectual abilities using artificial neural networks. By James W. Garson of the University of Houston.

Discussion of the connection between phenomenal consciousness and intentionality; by Charles Siewert.

The view that normative properties depend only on consequences; by Walter Sinnott-Armstrong.

Philosophical survey of the idea that government should be limited in its powers by law; by Wil Waluchow.

By Douglas Bridges from Waikato University.

By Fred D'Agostino.

By Ann E. Cudd, University of Kansas.

By Allen I. Janis, University of Pittsburgh.

Deals with the cosmological argument. By John Leslie of the University of Guelph.

Discusses philosophical views about cosmology in the 1930s and 1940s; by George Gale.

The view that all human beings belong to a single community; by Pauline Kleingeld and Eric Brown.

Discussion of analysis of causal statements in terms of counterfactual conditionals; by Peter Menzies.

Discussion of a semantic paradox due to Haskell B. Curry; by J. C. Beall.

Life and work of 13th century Italian poet and philosopher; by Winthrop Wetherbee.

Life and work of 18th century Scottish philosopher; by William Edward Morris.

Discussion of philosophical issues about death; by Steven Luper.

According to the deflationary theory of truth, to assert that a statement is true is just to assert the statement itself. By Daniel Stoljar.

By Lex Newman of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln.

Interpretations of René Descartes' ontology of necessities and possibilities; by David Cunning.

Discussion of René Descartes ontological proof of the existence of God; by Lawrence Nolan.

Moral issues of desert (punishment, success) and justice; by Owen McLeod.

A distinction introduced by W. E. Johnson to apply, e.g., to red and colored; by David H. Sanford.

Dialeth(e)ism is the view that there are true contradictions. By Graham Priest of the University of Queensland.

Theory and history of the binary connective 'or'; by Ray Jennings.

By Julian Lamont, University of Queensland.

Augustine's doctrine described by Robert Pasnau of the University of Colorado.

Views on the moral difference between doing harm and allowing harm; by Frances Howard-Snyder.

Jeff Malpas of the University of Tamania.

The view that people should get the same or be treated the same; by Richard Arneson.

The view that some or all of the mental states posited by common-sense do not actually exist; by William Ramsey.

Branch of ethics dealing with the moral relationship of humans to the environment; by Andrew Brennan and Yeuk-Sze Lo.

Discusses the view that mental events are caused by physical events in the brain, but have no effects upon any physical events. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by William S. Robinson.

Discussion of the distinction between knowledge and craft, or art in ancient philosophy; by Richard Parry.

Discussion of how sense experience justifies or warrants beliefs about the physical world; by Lawrence BonJour.

Survey of social and political equality; by Stefan Gosepath.

Survey of philosophical views on the character and status of events; by Roberto Casati and Achille Varzi.

Describes Everett's attempt to solve the measurement problem by dropping the collapse dynamics from the standard von Neumann-Dirac theory of quantum mechanics. By Jeffrey A. Barrett.

Survey of naturalistic epistemology which emphasizes importance of natural selection; by Michael Bradie and William Harms

By Barry Miller.

By Allan Franklin, University of Colorado.

By Elizabeth Anderson.

By Rosemarie Tong, Davidson College.

Survey of feminist writing on the philosophical canon; by Charlotte Witt.

By Diana Meyers of the University of Connecticut.

Approaches to geometry that do not presuppose an infinity of points; by Jean-Paul van Bendegem.

By Ian Ravenscroft, the Flinders University of South Australia.

By Robert M. Gordon, University of Missouri.

Discusses mathematical approaches to normative epistemology; by Oliver Schulte.

Survey of theories according to which knowledge and justified belief rest ultimately on a foundation of noninferential knowledge or justified belief. By Richard Fumerton of the University of Iowa.

Life and work of 14th century French theologian; by Christopher Schabel.

By Edward N. Zalta of Stanford University.

Life and work of the 18th century German philosopher; by Michael Forster.

Robert Wicks, University of Auckland.

Survey of logical systems with a continuum of truth values; by Petr Hajek.

Von Neumann and Morgensterns mathematical theory of bargaining, introduced by Don Ross University of Cape Town.

Life and work of early 20th century Spanish-born American philosopher; by Herman Saatkamp.

Life and work of 18th century Italian philosopher; by Timothy Costelloe.

Social theory and philosophy issues in globalization; by William Scheuerman.

Edward N. Zalta of the Metaphysics Research Lab.

Life and work of 19th century English philosopher and proponent of women's rights; by Dale E. Miller.

Paul Redding of the University of Sydney.

Theories which explain conscious states by their relations to higher-order representations of them; by Peter Carruthers.

In 1921, David Hilbert made a proposal for a formalist foundation of mathematics, for which a finitary consistency proof should establish the security of mathematics. By Richard Zach.

By Carl Matheson of the University of Manitoba.

Survey of work of Thomas Hobbes; by Sharon A. Lloyd.

Short article by Roberto Casati of the École Polytechnique and Achille C. Varzi of Columbia.

Comprehensive article by Richard Healey of the University of Arizona.

Philosophical issues in homosexuality and queer theory; by Brent Pickett.

Assesses the metaphysical implications of quantum theory by considering the impact of the theory on our understanding of objects as individuals with well defined identity conditions. By Steven French of Leeds University.

History of the political activity and theorizing founded in the shared experiences of injustice of members of certain social groups; by Cressida Heyes.

When a truth-bearer is true, there is a truth-maker with which it is identical and the truth of the former consists in its identity with the latter. By Stewart Candlish.

The doctrine that God cannot undergo real change; by Brian Leftow.

Survey of views on moral impartiality; by Troy Jollimore.

By Randolph Clarke.

By Chris Mortensen, University of Adelaide.

By Mark Colyvan, University of Tasmania.

Infinitary Logic is a branch of formal logic where finitary formulae are replaced by potentially infinitary mathematical entities. By John L. Bell.

By Leo Groarke, Wilfrid Laurier University.

Discussion of integrity as a virtue term; by Damian Cox, Marguerite La Caze, and Michael Levine.

Survey of theories on legal reasoning; by Julie Dickson.

Discussion of theory reduction in science; by Robert Batterman.

The principles L. E. J. Brouwer used in developing his intuitionistic mathematics. By Joan R. Moschovakis, UCLA.

Life and work of this German Enlightenment philosopher; by Gwen Griffith-Dickson.

Life and work of 19th century British legal philosopher and founder of legal positivism; by Brian Bix.

Life and work of late Medieval philosopher; by Jack Zupko.

In-depth article on the life, work, and thought of John Duns Scotus. By Thomas Williams.

Influential 17th century British political philosopher.

Life and work of 18th century American philosophical theologian; by William Wainwright.

Survey of justice as a virtue from Plato to Rawls; by Michael Slote.

Life and work of 19th century Austrian philosopher; by Dan Breazeale.

By Stephen Thornton from the University of Limerick.

Philosophical theories about what it is to be a law; by John W. Carroll.

Justifications of legal punishment; by Antony Duff.

By Michael J. Murray, Franklin & Marshall College.

By Mark Kulstad and Laurence Carlin.

Gerald F. Gaus outlines the general philosophical theory of liberalism.

Theory about the permissibility of non-consensual force violating property rights in external things and oneself; by Peter Vallentyne.

Survey of game-theoretical approaches to logic; by Wilfrid Hodges.

Bernard Linsky, University of Alberta.

Introduction to logical form, surface and deep meaning. By Paul M. Pietroski, University of Maryland.

Life and work of 18th century English philosopher; by Michael Gill.

Discussion of Ernst Mally's logic of obligation; by Gert-Jan Lokhorst.

Survey article on multiple-valued logics, by Siegfried Gottwaldof of Leipzig University.

By William Sweet of St. Francis Xavier University.

Life and work of German philosopher of egoism; by David Leopold.

Study of the details and some of the implications of the measurement problem. By Henry Krips of the University of Pittsburgh.

By E. Jennifer Ashworth of the University of Waterloo.

The ability to act on the determinations of conscience is tied to the development of the moral virtues, which in turn refines the functions of conscience. By Doug Langston of the University of South Florida.

By Simo Knuuttila of the University of Helsinki.

From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Anthony Celano.

The theories of proprietates terminorum was the basis of medieval semantic theory; by Stephen Read.

Survey of medieval views concerning the nature and ontological status of relations; by Jeffrey Brower.

By Nigel Thomas of Leeds University.

According to the Representational Theory of Mind, psychological states are to be understood as relations between agents and mental representations. By David Pitt, CUNY.

The theory of parthood relations: of the relations of part to whole and the relations of part to part within a whole; by Achille Varzi.

Exploring Hume's argument and the religious significance. By Michael P. Levine of the University of Western Australia.

Survey of the view that claims of necessity and possibility are to be construed as fictional claims; by Daniel Nolan.

Originally the study of deductive behavior of the expressions `it is necessary that' and `it is possible that', now also includes logics for belief, tense, the deontic (moral) expressions. By James W. Garson, University of Houston.

Discusses cases of conflicting moral requirements; by Terrance McConnell.

The claim that there are no defensible moral principles; by Jonathan Dancy.

Historical survey of the concept of moral responsibility; by Andrew Eshleman.

Survey of forms of scepticism about moral knowledge; Walter Sinnott-Armstrong.

John Bickle discusses the contention that a given mental kind (property, state, event) is realized by distinct physical kinds.

Discusses naturalistic theses in the philosophy of law; by Brian Leiter.

The view that epistemology is of one piece with natural science; by Richard Feldman.

Life and work of French Cartesian philosopher; by Tad Schmaltz.

By Roberto Torretti, Universidad de Chile.

The theistic thesis that God has maximal power; by Joshua Hoffman and Gary Rosenkrantz.

Survey of theories on the conditions of legal validity including natural law theories and legal positivism; by Andrei Marmor.

Ontological arguments are arguments, for the conclusion that God exists, from premisses which are supposed to derive from some source other than observation of the world. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Graham Oppy.

The original position is a hypothetical situation in which rational calculators, acting as agents or trustees for the interests of concrete individuals, are pictured as choosing those principles of social relations under which their principals would do best. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Fred D'Agostino.

The doctrine that mind is a fundamental feature of the world which exists throughout the universe; by William Seager.

Definition of Pantheism by Michael P. Levine of the University of Western Australia.

By Graham Priest and Koji Tanaka.

An argument due to Blaise Pascal for believing, or for at least taking steps to believe, in God. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Alan Hájek.

Biographical and expository essay by John Preston of Reading University.

Life and work of French Enlightenment philosoher; by Michael LeBuffe.

By Eric M. Hammer of Stanford.

Survey of philosophical theories about what it is to govern oneself; by Sarah Buss.

How does a person stay the same person over time? By Eric T. Olson.

Life and work of one of the most original and interesting philosophers of the later Middle Ages. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Robert Pasnau.

Life and work of 13th century logician and author of the Tractatus; by Joke Spruyt.

Life and work of this 13th-century philosopher, theologian, and lyric poet. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Colleen McCluskey.

Discussion of philosophical implications of Christian theological views; by Michael Murray.

Discusses introduction of philosophy into the school curriculum; by Michael Pritchard.

The philosophy of childhood takes up philosophically interesting questions about childhood, about conceptions people have of childhood and attitudes they have toward children; by Gareth Matthews.

By Lawrence Sklar.

Discussion of the thesis that everything is physical; by Daniel Stoljar.

Discussion of Plato's views on metaphysics and the theory of knowledge, including his theory of forms; by Allan Silverman.

Life and work of this founder of Neoplatonism; by Lloyd Gerson.

Entry by A.D. Irvine discussing Russell and Whitehead's treatise.

By Steven T. Kuhn of Georgetown University.

Survey of philosophical views about privacy; by Judith DeCew.

By Stewart Candlish from the University of Western Australia.

"Probabilistic Causation" designates a group of philosophical theories that aim to characterize the relationship between cause and effect using the tools of probability theory. A primary motivation for the development of such theories is the desire for a theory of causation that does not presuppose physical determinism.

View that puts processes at the center of metaphysics; by Nicholas Rescher.

Entry in the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy by Chris Swoyer. Principally concerned with existence and identity conditions.

Explores semantic accounts of propositional attitude reports, and some of the theories developed to deal with Frege's puzzle. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Thomas J. McKay.

By Fred D'Agostino, University of New England, Australia.

Philosophical justifications of punishment; by Hugo Adam Bedau.

The life and work of the founder of Pyrrhonism; by Richard Bett.

Qualia are introspectively accessible, phenomenal aspects of our mental lives. By Michael Tye.

Aims to establish that conscious experience involves non-physical properties. It is one of the most discussed arguments against physicalism; by Martine Nida-Rümelin.

How quantum mechanics can be regarded as a non-classical probabilistic calculus; by Alexander Wilce.

Survey by Jenann Ismael.

Survey of realism and anti-realism in various forms; by Alexander Miller.

The result of a process of reflection on an area of (moral) inquiry, a notion figuring prominently in Rawls' Theory of Justice; by Norman Daniels.

By Frank Arntzenius of Rutgers.

An interpretation of quantum theory which discards the notions of absolute state of a system, absolute value of its physical quantities, or absolute event; by Federico Laudisa and Carlo Rovelli.

The view that there are objects which are the same F yet not the same G; by Harry Deutsch.

By Edwin D. Mares, Victoria University of Wellington.

Life and work of 17th century French philosopher; by Kurt Smith.

By William Lycan, University of North Carolina.

Theory developed to analyze paradoxes that appear to show that common-sense beliefs about truth are inconsistent. By Eric M. Hammer.

Life and work of 20th century American philosopher; by Bjørn Ramberg.

Richardus Sophista was an English philosopher/logician who studied at Oxford most likely sometime during the second quarter of the thirteenth century. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Paul Streveler.

Life and work of 14th Century British philosopher, follower of Wyclif and Burley; by Alessandro Conti.

Life and work of 17th century Irish philosopher and physicist; by J. J. McIntosh, University of Calgary.

Life and work of 17th century Cartesian philosopher; by Patricia Easton.

Life and Work of Robert Holcot, 14th Century English philosopher and theologian; by Hester Gelber.

Life and work of Polish phenomenologist, ontologist and aesthetician; by Amie Thomasson.

By A. D. Irvine.

By A. D. Irvine.

Life and work of Saadya Gaon (Saadya ben Joseph, known in Arabic as Sa'id ?ibn Yusuf al-Fayyûmî, 10th century theologian, philosopher and rabbi; by Sarah Pessin.

By Thomas Williams, University of Iowa.

By Michael Mendelson of Lehigh University.

Life and work of contemporary and critic of Kant; by Peter Thielke and Yitzhak Melamed.

Philosophical theories about the nature of explanation in science; by James Woodward.

The thesis that science discovers truths about a theory-independent reality; by Richard Boyd.

Survey of Scottish Enlightenment philosophers, including Francis Hutcheson, Henry Home (Lord Kames), and George Campbell; by lexander Broadie.

Survey of the work of William Hamilton, James Frederick Ferrier, and Alexander Bain; by Gordon Graham.

Realism and the representation problem; by Drew Khlentzos.

Survey of the mathematical theory of the infinite; by Thomas Jech.

Propositions about a particular object or individual in virtue of having the object or individual as a constituent of the proposition. By G. W. Fitch.

Discussess the impact of social relations and values on scientific research; by Helen Longino.

Survey of views on the social dimension of knowledge; by Alvin Goldman.

By Dominic Hyde.

Modern notion of political authority of supreme authority within a territory; by Dan Philpott.

Frames of reference relative to which motion and rest are measured; by Robert DiSalle.

Philosophical theories on what makes a species; by Marc Ereshefsky.

Life and work of Speusippus of Athens, son of Plato's sister Potone and head of the Academy; by Russell Dancy.

By Terence Parsons.

Online philosophy reference work, articles are authored and updated by experts in the field. Edited by Edward Zalta.

Stoicism was one of the new philosophical movements of the Hellenistic period. By Dirk Baltzly.

To say that propositions are structured is to say that they are complex entities, entities having parts or constituents. By Jeffrey C. King.

By Greg Restall of Macquarie University.

Introduced by Jon Pérez Laraudogoitia from the University of the Basque Country.

Essay about Kierkegaard's life, work, and philosophy by William McDonald.

By Colin Allen of Texas A & M.

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on the subject, with a detailed description, application areas and a bibliography.

Survey of analyses of the concept of knowledge, including justified true belief and the Gettier problem; by Matthias Steup.

History and discussion of the notion of the immune self; by Alfred Tauber.

The philosophical theopry that the mind is, or functions like, a computer; by Steven Horst.

First interpretation of quantum mechanics due to Nields Bohr; by Jan Faye.

The thesis that propositions are made true in virtue of corresponding to facts; by Marian David.

Discussion of various descriptive and normative definitions of the term; Bernard Gert.

By Peter Forrest.

Discussion of David Hilbert's development of this type of logical formalism with emphasis on proof-theoretic methods; by Jeremy Avigad and Richard Zach.

By Robin Le Poidevin.

Philosophical issues related to collective action; by Russell Hardin.

The hole argument is an attempt to illustrate how spacetime substantivalism causes errors in a large class of spacetime theories. By John D. Norton of the University of Pittsburgh.

Peter Forrest introduces the principle of analytic ontology formulated by Leibniz, stating that no two distinct substances exactly resemble each other.

Evaluates the theory that holds that states and processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain. By J. J. C. Smart of Monash.

By Carsten Held.

By Murat Aydede, surveying the arguments for and against the proposition that thoughts are expressed in a mental language.

Interpretation of quantum mechanics due to Hugh Everett according to which many universes exist in parallel at the same space and time; by Lev Vaidman.

Survey of the algebra of two-valued logic; by J. Donald Monk.

By Gyula Klima.

Historical survey from Babbage onward; by B. Jack Copeland.

Philosophical theories about the difference between animals and humans responsible for the moral status of humans. By Lori Gruen.

By John Bickle and Peter Mandik.

Does the world contain undesirable states of affairs that provide the basis for an argument that makes it unreasonable for anyone to believe in the existence of God?; by Michael Tooley.

By Robert M. Martin, Dalhousie University.

Proposal due to Alan Turing for a criterion of the presence of mind or consciousness; by Graham Oppy and David Dowe.

History and philosophical accounts of unity of consciousness; by Andrew Brook.

Survey of divine command theory; by Mark Murphy.

Biographical and expository essay, by Ralph McInerny.

Life and work of medieval philosopher and member of the Modists; by Jack Zupko.

Life and work of 18th century Scottish philosopher; by Gideon Yaffe.

By James Robert Brown, University of Toronto.

Survey of philosophical woories about inconsistencies inherent in the idea of time travel in the context of modern physics. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Tim Maudlin.

Timon (c. 320-230 BC) was the younger contemporary and leading disciple of Pyrrho; by Richard Bett.

An article describing tropes by John Bacon.

Discussion of notion of verisimilitude, closeness to truth; by Graham Oddie.

Article on Turing Machines from the Stanford Encyclopedia.

By Roy Sorensen.

By John Greco of Fordham.

By Robert Young, La Trobe University.

Article on the ethics of war and peace, the Just War theory, and pacificsm. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Brian D. Orend.

By Jay F. Rosenberg.

Article on the life and work of the founder of philosophical anarchism. From the Stanford Encyclopedia, by Mark Philp.

Life and work of 19th century American philosopher; by Russell Goodman.

Occam (1287-1347) was one of the most important philosophers of the Middle Ages. By Paul Vincent Spade.

Life and work of 15th Century Oxford Realist philosopher; by Alessandro Conti.

Life and work of 19th century British philosopher; by Laura J. Snyder.

Discusses the paradoxes of Zeno of Elea, e.g., Achilles and the Tortoise; by Nick Huggett.